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Family economics applies basic economic concepts such as production, division of labor, distribution, and decision making to the study of the family. Using economic analysis it tries to explain outcomes unique to family—such as marriage, the decision to have children, fertility, polygamy, time devoted to domestic production, and dowry payments. The family, although recognized as fundamental from Adam Smith onward, received little systematic treatment in economics before the 1960s. Important exceptions are Thomas Malthus' model of population growth〔Thomas Robert Malthus, 1798. ''An Essay on the Principle of Population''. (Arrow-searchable text ).〕 and Friedrich Engels'〔 pioneering work on the structure of family, the latter being often mentioned in Marxist and feminist economics. Since the 1960s, family economics has developed within mainstream economics, propelled by the new home economics started by Gary Becker, Jacob Mincer, and their students.〔• Theodore W. Schultz, ed., .1974. ''Economics of the Family: Marriage, Children, and Human Capital'', chapter-download (links. ) Chicago, University of Chicago Press. • Amyra Grossbard, 1976. "An Economic Analysis of Polygamy: The Case of Maiduguri." Current Anthropology 17:701-7 (). • Michael C. Keeley 1979. "An Analysis of the Age Pattern of First Marriage." International Economic Review () 320:527-44. • Gary S. Becker, .1981, Enlarged ed., 1991. ''A Treatise on the Family''. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-90698-5. (Publisher's description ) & (links to chapter previews. ) • Amyra Grossbard-Shechtman, 1984. "A Theory of Allocation of Time in Markets for Labor and Marriage." Economic Journal 94:863-82 (). • Gary S. Becker, 1987. "family," ''The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics'', v. 2, pp. 281-86. Reprinted in ''Social Economics: The New Palgrave'', 1989, pp. ( 65 )-(76. )〕 Standard themes include: * fertility and the demand for children in developed and developing countries〔• Alicia Adsera, 2008. "fertility in developed countries," ''The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics'', 2nd Edition. ( Abstract. ) • T. Paul Schultz.2008. "fertility in developing countries," ''The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics'', 2nd Edition. ( Abstract. )〕 * child health and mortality〔Janet Currie, 2008. "child health and mortality," ''The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics'', 2nd Edition. ( Abstract. )〕 * interrelation and trade-off of 'quantity' and 'quality' of children through investment of time and other resources of parents〔 ( Description ) and scroll to chapter-preview (links. )〕 * altruism in the family, including the rotten kid theorem〔Theodore C. Bergstrom, 2008. "Rotten Kid Theorem," ''The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics, 2nd Edition'', (Abstract. )〕 * sexual division of labor, intra-household bargaining, and the household production function.〔Olivier Donni, 2008. "collective models of the household." ''The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics'', 2nd Edition. (Abstract. )〕 * mate selection,〔Hao Li, 2008. "assortative matching," ''The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics'', 2nd Edition. (Abstract. )〕 search costs, marriage, divorce, and imperfect information〔Yoram Weiss, 2008. "marriage and divorce," ''The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics'', 2nd Edition. (Abstract. )〕 * family organization, background, and opportunities for children〔• Shelly Lundberg and Robert A. Pollak, 2008. "family decision making," ''The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics'', 2nd Edition. (Abstract. ) • • 〕 * intergenerational mobility and inequality,〔Gary Solon, 2008. "intergenerational income mobility," " ''The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics'', 2nd Edition. (Abstract. )〕 including the bequest motive.〔• Laurence J. Kotlikoff and Lawrence H. Summers, 1981), "The Role of Intergenerational Transfers in Aggregate Capital Accumulation." ''Journal of Political Economy'', 89(40), p (p. 70 ) 6-732. • John Laitner, 2008. "bequests and the life cycle model," ''The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics'', 2nd Edition.(Abstract. ) • Kathleen McGarry, 2008. "inheritance and bequests." ''The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics'', 2nd Edition. (Abstract. )〕 * human capital, social security, and the rise and fall of families〔• Oded Galor, 2008. "human capital, fertility and growth," ''The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics'', 2nd Edition. ( Abstract. ) • John Ermisch, 2008. "family economics," ''The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics'', 2nd Edition. (Abstract. )〕 * macroeconomics of the family.〔Gary S. Becker, 1988. "Family Economics and Macro Behavior," ''American Economic Review'', 78(1) , pp. (1-13. ).〕 〔 Jeremy Greenwood, Nezih Guner, and Guillaume Vandenbroucke, 2015. "Family Economics Writ Large," ()〕 Several surveys, treatises, and handbooks are available on the subject.〔• Gary S. Becker, 1987. "family," ''The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics'', v. 2, pp. 281-86. Reprinted in ''Social Economics: The New Palgrave'', 1989, pp. ( 65 )-(76. ) • _____, 1981, Enlarged ed., 1991. ''A Treatise on the Family''. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-90698-5. (Publisher's description ) & (links to chapter previews. ) • John Ermisch, 2008. "family economics," ''The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics'', 2nd Edition. (Abstract. ) • _____, 2003. ''An Economic Analysis of the Family'', Princeton. (Description ), Chapter 1 ( "Introduction" ) (press +), chapter-preview (links. ) • Mark R. Rosenzweig and Oded Stark, ed., 1997. ''Handbook of Population and Family Economics''. lst-page ch. links, (v. 1A ), Elsevier. (Description ), v. 1A (preview ), and ch. 1 (link. )〕〔• Theodore C. Bergstrom, 1996. "Economics in a Family Way," ''Journal of Economic Literature'', 34(4), pp. (1903-1934 ). • _____, 1997. "A Survey of Theories of the Family," ch. 2 in ''Handbook of Population and Family Economics'', M. R. Rosenzweig and O. Stark, ed., (v. 1A ), pp. (21-75 ). Elsevier. • Google scholar search of (Theodore Bergstrom family )〕 〔 Jeremy Greenwood, Nezih Guner, and Guillaume Vandenbroucke, 2015. "Family Economics Writ Large," ().〕 ==History of family economics== Early economists were mostly interested in how much individuals contribute to social production, which translated into how much labor they supply in the labor market. Production within the household was not a subject that received systematic treatment by early economists. In ''The Wealth of Nations'', Adam Smith alludes to the importance of the family in his chapter on Wages. Smith wrote: “But though in disputes with their workmen, masters must generally have the advantage, there is, however, a certain rate below which it seems impossible to reduce, for any considerable time, the ordinary wages even of the lowest species of labour....A man must always live by his work, and his wages must at least be sufficient to maintain him. They must even upon most occasions be somewhat more; otherwise it would be impossible for him to bring up a family, and the race of such workmen could not last beyond the first generation.”〔Adam Smith, 2000, ("On Wages" ) ''The Wealth of Nations''.〕 Accordingly, the wage received by the worker must be high enough to support the family in order to ensure the inter-generational reproduction of the working class. Malthus added to this analysis in his theory of population growth, where he argued that when wages are high laboring families tend to have more children, causing increase in population and reduction in wages.〔 The reproduction of the labor force, namely the way workers raise children to replace themselves, is a central issue in Marxist Theory. In ''Capital, Volume I'', Marx argues that the amount of labor time that is necessary for the reproduction of workers is equal in value to the income they need to sustain a family which will raise a child to replace the worker. This amount is called necessary labor time. He calls surplus labor time the labor time that workers spend in addition to necessary time. This implies that for Marx the wage that workers need to sustain their families is one of the basic factors that regulates the economy. When he defines necessary labor time, however, Marx means the market labor necessary to earn the income that workers need so that their family can survive. Some connect working class demands for a family wage in late 19th century to Marx's ideas: male workers demanded that their wages be at a level sufficient to eliminate the need of wives and children to do market work. There is nothing on the production occurring within the family in ''Capital''.〔Karl Marx, 1999, "The Production of Surplus Value", Capital A Critique of Political Economy", http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1867-c1/index.htm〕 Friedrich Engels wrote on how the economic structure of the family is shaped by the structure of class society.〔 According to Engels, the monogamous family, consisting of one man, one woman and children, is something created by the class system. So are adultery and prostitution, institutions that go together with the monogamous family system.〔Friedrich Engels, 1981, The Origin of the Family, Private Property and State, International Publishers, pp 138〕 Pre-capitalistic forms of marriage discussed by Engels 〔Friedrich Engels, 1981, The Origin of the Family, Private Property and State, International Publishers, pp 94-146〕 were group marriage and pairing marriage. Engels argued, “with the ponderance of private property over communal property and the interest in its bequeathal, father rights and monogamy gained supremacy.”〔Friedrich Engels, 1981, The Origin of the Family, Private Property and State, International Publishers, pp 142〕 He expected monogamy to disappear with the demise of capitalism. He wrote that within the family men are like capitalists and women are like the proletariat, and full freedom for women can only be possible if women will be brought "back into public industry," (p. 138) as he expected would happen under socialism. In his view under socialism women would not face the double burden of wage work and unpaid household work, since he expected household tasks to be provided as public services. Other Marxist economists of the late 19th and early 20th century like Bebel, Luxemburg, and Lenin also wrote on the necessity of bringing women back into the public industry. The marginalist school, developed in the late 19th century, moved the focus of economics further away from family. The focus of early marginalists like Léon Walras, Stanley Jevons, and Alfred Marshall was market transactions, so any work done in the household was not of interest to marginalists. The basic economic unit was either the individual or the household, and when they took the household as the basic unit, they were not interested in how decisions were made within a household.〔 In the 1920s and 30s, economists like Eric Lindahl, Einar Dahlgren, Karin Kock, and Simon Kuznets argued that production within the household was an important part of national production, and without its inclusion GNP cannot be a complete indicator of national production level. During the same period Hazel Kyrk, Margaret Reid and Elizabeth Hoyt tried to develop a new field called consumption economics, trying to bring consumption and production roles in the household within the sphere of economics.〔 The New Home Economics developed in the 1960s and continues to be one of the main approaches in the field of family economics in the 21st Century. The household production functions introduced by Gary Becker in his article “A Theory of Allocation of Time” are used in the analysis of many household decisions. Theodore W. Schultz captured aspects of family that are important for the whole economy and that were emphasized by Becker and Mincer, the founders of the NHE: the production of human capital in the form of investing in children, the maintenance of adults' human capital, the way members of family allocate their time between market and household work, and consumption decisions in the family.“ Contemporary family economics has also been enriched by contributions of Marxists and radical feminists written since the 1970s. While Marxism focuses on how class relationships and capitalism shapes family structure, the focus of radical feminism was on gender, patriarchy and men's domination of women in marriages and households. Marxist-feminists subsequently sought to integrate these two approaches by trying to show how patriarchy and capitalism interact with each other.〔Blau, Ferber, Winkler, 2010. "The Family as Economic Unit", The Economics of Women, Men, and Work Ch. 3., pg. 33-75〕 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「Family economics」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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